Ovid’s Four Ages

In Book 1 of his Metamorphoses

Ovid’s account of the four ages appears in Book 1 of his Metamorphoses, a poem on transformations. It describes the decline of humanity from an ideal state to moral decay across four eras: Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron.

This progression illustrates how virtue erodes over time, leading to divine punishment via a flood. The narrative draws from earlier traditions, such as Hesiod’s Works and Days, but Ovid adapts it with Roman elements.

The full verses from Book 1, in A. S. Kline’s English translation, are as follows:

The Golden Age (Bk I:89-112)

This was the Golden Age that, without coercion, without laws, spontaneously nurtured the good and the true. There was no fear or punishment: there were no threatening words to be read, fixed in bronze, no crowd of suppliants fearing the judge’s face: they lived safely without protection.

No pine tree felled in the mountains had yet reached the flowing waves to travel to other lands: human beings only knew their own shores.

There were no steep ditches surrounding towns, no straight war-trumpets, no coiled horns, no swords and helmets. Without the use of armies, people passed their lives in gentle peace and security.

The earth herself also, freely, without the scars of ploughs, untouched by hoes, produced everything from herself. Contented with food that grew without cultivation, they collected mountain strawberries and the fruit of the strawberry tree, wild cherries, blackberries clinging to the tough brambles, and acorns fallen from Jupiter’s spreading oak-tree.

Spring was eternal, and gentle breezes caressed with warm air the flowers that grew without being seeded.

Then the untilled earth gave of its produce and, without needing renewal, the fields whitened with heavy ears of corn. Sometimes rivers of milk flowed, sometimes streams of nectar, and golden honey trickled from the green holm oak.

The Silver Age (Bk I:113-124)

When Saturn was banished to gloomy Tartarus, and Jupiter ruled the world, then came the people of the age of silver that is inferior to gold, more valuable than yellow bronze.

Jupiter shortened spring’s first duration and made the year consist of four seasons, winter, summer, changeable autumn, and brief spring.

Then parched air first glowed white scorched with the heat, and ice hung down frozen by the wind.

Then houses were first made for shelter: before that homes had been made in caves, and dense thickets, or under branches fastened with bark.

Then seeds of corn were first buried in the long furrows, and bullocks groaned, burdened under the yoke.

Bronze Age (Bk I:125-127)

Third came the people of the bronze age, with fiercer natures, readier to indulge in savage warfare, but not yet vicious.

Iron Age (Bk I:128-150)

The harsh iron age was last. Immediately every kind of wickedness erupted into this age of baser natures: truth, shame and honour vanished; in their place were fraud, deceit, and trickery, violence and pernicious desires.

They set sails to the wind, though as yet the seamen had poor knowledge of their use, and the ships’ keels that once were trees standing amongst high mountains, now leaped through uncharted waves.

The land that was once common to all, as the light of the sun is, and the air, was marked out, to its furthest boundaries, by wary surveyors.

Not only did they demand the crops and the food the rich soil owed them, but they entered the bowels of the earth, and excavating brought up the wealth it had concealed in Stygian shade, wealth that incites men to crime.

And now harmful iron appeared, and gold more harmful than iron.

War came, whose struggles employ both, waving clashing arms with bloodstained hands.

They lived on plunder: friend was not safe with friend, relative with relative, kindness was rare between brothers. Husbands longed for the death of their wives, wives for the death of their husbands.

Murderous stepmothers mixed deadly aconite, and sons inquired into their father’s years before their time. Piety was dead, and virgin Astraea, last of all the immortals to depart, herself abandoned the blood-drenched earth.

Research

The Golden Age occurred under Saturn (Roman equivalent of Cronus), characterized by peace, abundance, and no need for laws or labor.

Jupiter (Roman equivalent of Zeus) overthrew and banished Saturn to Tartarus, ending the Golden Age and assuming rule. The Silver Age then began under Jupiter’s reign, marked by the introduction of seasons, agriculture, and initial decline from the ideal state. Jupiter did not appoint another god; he directly presided over this and subsequent ages.

This was followed by the Bronze Age (warlike but not fully corrupt) and the Iron Age (era of widespread wickedness).

During the Iron Age, Jupiter, outraged by human depravity (exemplified by King Lycaon’s actions), convened the gods and ended that age by sending a great flood to destroy most of humanity, sparing only Deucalion and Pyrrha.

Assigning Zeus/Jupiter to Ovid’s Ages

Ovid (Metamorphoses I.89–150) describes four successive ages:

1. Golden Age – ruled by Saturn (Cronus).
2. Silver Age – began when Jupiter (Zeus) became king; seasons introduced; work and agriculture required.
3. Bronze Age – more warlike, but not yet utterly depraved.
4. Iron Age – corruption, greed, and crime dominate.

So:

• Saturn/Cronus = Golden Age.
• Jupiter/Zeus = Silver Age (the transition from carefree life to structured, laborious life).

Assigning Jupiter/Zeus specifically to the Silver Age aligns with Ovid’s narrative, as his rule begins the decline from the Golden ideal, introducing structure and toil. However, his reign extends through the subsequent ages, culminating in his decision to end the Iron Age with a flood (lines 163–312). This scheme adapts Hesiod’s Greek model but emphasizes Roman themes of order and decay.

The Silver Age

Jupiter ends eternal spring and divides the year into four seasons (winter, summer, autumn, and brief spring). This introduces variability in weather, symbolizing a move from stable, abundant conditions to a harsher, unpredictable climate that forces humans to adapt. Earth has four seasons due to its axial tilt of approximately 23.5 degrees relative to its orbital plane around the Sun. As Earth completes its yearly orbit, this tilt causes varying angles and durations of sunlight exposure on different parts of the planet.

Climatic Challenges

The air becomes “parched” and “scorched” in heat, while ice forms in cold winds. This represents the emergence of extreme weather, compelling humans to seek protection and plan for survival beyond immediate needs.

Advancement in Shelter

Humans build houses for the first time, replacing natural refuges like caves, thickets, or bark-covered branches. This indicating early architectural and communal development.

Agricultural Innovation

Seeds are planted in furrows, and bullocks are yoked for labor. This signifies the shift to farming and animal domestication, introducing systematic work, tools, and resource management.

The Iron Age ends through Jupiter’s intervention

In Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Book 1), the Iron Age ends through Jupiter’s intervention, driven by human wickedness. He destroys most of humanity with a flood, sparing only Deucalion and Pyrrha to repopulate the earth. This marks the close of the age of decline.

The Iron Age description (lines 127–150) highlights the corruption that prompts Jupiter’s action:

“The harsh iron age was last. Immediately every kind of wickedness erupted into this age of baser natures: truth, shame and honour vanished; in their place were fraud, deceit, and trickery, violence and pernicious desires. They set sails to the wind, though as yet the seamen had poor knowledge of their use, and the ships’ keels that once were trees standing amongst high mountains, now leaped through uncharted waves. The land that was once common to all, as the light of the sun is, and the air, was marked out, to its furthest boundaries, by wary surveyors. Not only did they demand the crops and the food the rich soil owed them, but they entered the bowels of the earth, and excavating brought up the wealth it had concealed in Stygian shade, wealth that incites men to crime. And now harmful iron appeared, and gold more harmful than iron. War came, whose struggles employ both, waving clashing arms with bloodstained hands. They lived on plunder: friend was not safe with friend, relative with relative, kindness was rare between brothers. Husbands longed for the death of their wives, wives for the death of their husbands. Murderous stepmothers mixed deadly aconite, and sons inquired into their father’s years before their time. Piety was dead, and virgin Astraea, last of all the immortals to depart, herself abandoned the blood-drenched earth.”

The transition to the end (lines 163–176) shows Jupiter’s decision:

“To prevent the world being given over to the monsters, all the gods of heaven nodded their assent to the destruction of the mortal race. They asked what would become of the earth bereft of men, who would bring incense to their altars. Would he deliver everything to wild beasts? The king forbade such fears: he would see to the rest, he promised a different race would arise, of wondrous origin, unlike the former.”

Jupiter then tests humanity through Lycaon (lines 177–243), confirming their depravity, and resolves to flood the earth (lines 244–261):

“Now the gods had spoken, and all assented to the destruction of the race of mortals. Some demanded fire, but the king restrained them, fearing the conflagration might consume the heavens. He remembered the fates decreed that sea, earth, and sky would burn, and the fabric of the world be tried. So he set aside the weapons forged by the Cyclopes’ hands, and chose a different punishment: to drown mankind under the waves, sending rain from every quarter of the sky.”

Let’s summarize what we have:  

1. Golden Age – ruled by Saturn (Cronus).
2. Silver Age – began when Jupiter (Zeus) became king; seasons introduced; work and agriculture required.
3. Bronze Age – more warlike, but not yet utterly depraved.
4. Iron Age – corruption, greed, and crime dominate. Ended by Jupiter’s intervention with a flood, sparing Deucalion and Pyrrha to repopulate the earth

Deucalion and Pyrrha

Deucalion, son of Prometheus, and Pyrrha, daughter of Epimetheus, are the sole human survivors of the flood in Ovid’s Metamorphoses Book 1. They are depicted as pious individuals who worship the gods after landing on Mount Parnassus. Following an oracle from Themis, they repopulate the earth by throwing stones behind them, which transform into humans. This act symbolizes renewal after destruction.

See Deucalion and Pyrrha

The Bronze Age

Hesiod

Hesiod portrays the Bronze Age as the third race: warlike, made from ash trees, with bronze tools and homes, but no iron.

“from ash trees, a race both terrible and mighty, for whom the mournful works of Ares and violence were a care; nor in any way did they eat bread, but they had a dauntless heart of adamant, rough men; and great strength and invincible hands grew from their shoulders on their mighty limbs. Bronze were their weapons, bronze were their homes, with bronze they worked; but there was no dark iron” (ll. 145-151). This race destroys itself through violence, differing from Ovid’s briefer, less destructive depiction.

A recuring theme in creation stories, the human-tree relation.

Aratus

Aratus reduces the ages to three and links the Bronze Age to moral decline through technology:

“men more hostile than their predecessors (they first forged from bronze the evil-working sword of the roadside, and they first ate plough-bearing cattle)”

(ll. 131-132)

Ovid

Ovid merges Hesiod’s Bronze and Heroic Ages, making his Bronze Age

“more savage in their characters and more prone to horrible arms, though not wicked”.

(l. 126)

Other Greeks, like Diodorus Siculus (1st c. BC), mention the ages but focus on the Golden Age, without detailed Bronze Age references.

Let’s summarize what we have:  

1. Golden Age
   • Ruled by Saturn (Cronus)
   • Idyllic era of peace, abundance, and no laws
2. Silver Age
   • Saturn was banished to gloomy Tartarus
   • Began when Jupiter (Zeus) became king;
   • Jupiter shortened spring’s first duration
   • Seasons introduced; work and agriculture required.
3. Bronze Age
   • more warlike, but not yet utterly depraved.
   • the third race: warlike, made from ash trees, with bronze tools and homes, but no iron
   • more savage in their characters and more prone to horrible arms, though not wicked
4. Iron Age
   • Corruption, greed, and crime dominate
   • The harsh iron age was last
   • Every kind of wickedness erupted
   • Ended by Jupiter’s intervention with a flood, sparing Deucalion and Pyrrha
   • Repopulation
     • Deucalion and Pyrrha are the sole human survivors of the flood, repopulate the earth
     • They create a new race by throwing stones, which become humans

Hesiod’s Theogony

The story of the Olympians centers on their rise to power after defeating the Titans in the Titanomachy, a divine war described primarily in Hesiod’s Theogony (c. 700 BC). The Titans, led by Cronus, ruled during a primordial era, but Cronus, fearing a prophecy, swallowed his children.

“But when she [Rhea] was about to bear Zeus, the father of gods and men, then she besought her own dear parents, Earth [Gaia] and starry Heaven [Uranus], to devise some plan with her that the birth of her dear child might be concealed, and that retribution might overtake great, crafty Cronus for his own father and also for the children whom he had swallowed down. And they readily heard and obeyed their dear daughter, and told her all that was destined to happen touching Cronus and his stout-hearted son.”

Lines 459–467

“And when she [Rhea] had borne him [Zeus], she hid him in a cave on the great mountain of Crete, in the land of Lyctus, and gave Cronus a great stone wrapped in swaddling clothes. Then he took it in his hands and thrust it down into his belly: wretch! he knew not in his heart that in place of the stone his son was left behind, unconquered and untroubled, and that he was soon to overcome him by force and might and drive him from his honours, himself to reign over the deathless gods. After that, the strength and glorious limbs of the prince increased quickly, and as the years rolled on, great Cronus the wily was beguiled by the deep suggestions of Earth, and brought up again his offspring, vanquished by the arts and might of his own son, and he vomited up first the stone which he had swallowed last.”

Lines 473–491

Zeus (Jupiter in Roman mythology), spared by his mother Rhea, rallied his siblings, Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon, and overthrew Cronus, imprisoning the Titans in Tartarus.

The Olympians then established their rule, governing the cosmos and humanity, which aligns with the transition from the Golden to Silver Age in Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Book 1, lines 89–150).

“Now when the blessed gods had finished their toil, and settled by strength their struggle for honours with the Titans, they pressed far-seeing Olympian Zeus to reign and to rule over them, by Earth’s prompting. So he divided their dignities amongst them. Now Zeus, king of the gods, made Metis his wife first…”

Lines 617–626

“And when the gods had fully completed their growth, and were come to their strength’s prime, then the Titan gods, urged by Earth, raised war against the gods of Olympus, that they might drive them from their honours and rule over mankind… For ten full years they fought, and there was no end or issue to the grievous strife, and the issue of the war hung evenly balanced.”

Lines 664–686:

“But when Zeus had brought to the gods the shining gift of the Cyclopes, the thunder and the gleaming bolt… then the battle turned, and the Titan gods could not withstand the onslaught of Zeus… The Hundred-Handers, Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes, insatiable for war, joined the gods, and with their hands they hurled three hundred rocks in swift succession, and overshadowed the Titans with their missiles, and buried them beneath the wide-pathed earth, and bound them in bitter chains when they had conquered them by their strength, as far beneath the earth as heaven is above earth.”

Lines 687–712

“There in Tartarus the Titan gods are bound in cruel bonds, and the sounding Ocean hides them… There the Titan gods were confined by the will of Zeus, in the dank darkness at the ends of the earth; nor may they go forth, for Poseidon fixed gates of bronze upon it, and a wall runs round it on every side.”

Lines 713–735

Zeus’s reign oversees the decline through the Silver, Bronze, and Iron Ages, culminating in the flood to end human corruption, followed by repopulation through Deucalion and Pyrrha.

Hesiod’s Theogony provides the Greek foundation for this narrative, while Ovid adapts it in Metamorphoses for a Roman audience, linking the Olympian-Titan conflict to the ages of human decline.

Let’s summarize what we have:  

1. Golden Age
   • Ruled by Saturn (Cronus) leader of the Titans (Rhea, Oceanus, Hyperion)
   • Idyllic era of peace, abundance, and no laws
   • Before
     • Uranus(the father) was overthrowned by Cronus
2. Silver Age
   • Began when Jupiter (Zeus) became king after the Titanomachy; a ten-year war with Olympians (Poseidon, Hades, Hera, Athena) defeating and imprisoning Titans in Tartarus
     • The Hundred-Handers, Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes joined
     • Hurled three hundred rocks in swift succession
     • Overshadowed the Titans with their missiles
   • Saturn was banished to gloomy Tartarus (as far beneath the earth as heaven is above earth)
   • Jupiter shortened spring’s first duration
   • Seasons introduced; requiring work and agriculture
   • The Olympians then established their rule, governing the cosmos and humanity
3. Bronze Age
   • Warlike but not fully corrupt
   • The third race: warlike, made from ash trees, with bronze tools and homes, but no iron
   • More savage in their characters and more prone to horrible arms, though not wicked
4. Iron Age
   • Corruption, greed, and crime dominate
   • The harsh iron age was last
   • Every kind of wickedness erupted
   • Ended by Jupiter’s (Zeus) intervention with a flood, sparing Deucalion and Pyrrha
   • Repopulation
     • Deucalion and Pyrrha are the sole human survivors of the flood, repopulate the earth
     • They create a new race by throwing stones, which become humans

What happened after the flood

In Greek mythology, the story of Deucalion and Pyrrha, as the sole survivors of a great flood who repopulate the earth by throwing stones that become humans, is primarily detailed in Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Book 1, lines 348–415), a Roman work that draws heavily on Greek traditions. However, Greek sources also preserve versions of this flood myth, and some continue or connect to the narrative of human renewal, though they vary in detail and focus.

Apollodorus, Bibliotheca (1st–2nd century AD)

Apollodorus’s Bibliotheca (1.7.2) provides a Greek version of the flood myth, closely paralleling Ovid’s account. Deucalion, son of Prometheus, and Pyrrha, daughter of Epimetheus, survive a flood sent by Zeus to destroy the corrupt Bronze Age race. They land on a mountain (Parnassus or Othrys in different versions) and repopulate humanity by throwing stones, interpreted as the “bones” of their mother, Gaia (Earth). The narrative continues by tracing their descendants, particularly Hellen, who becomes the ancestor of the Hellenes (Greeks).

“But Zeus, wishing to destroy the race of men, sent a flood upon the earth. By Prometheus’s advice, Deucalion built an ark, and putting in it provisions, he embarked in it with Pyrrha. Zeus poured a great rain from heaven, and flooded the greater part of Greece… Deucalion, floating in the ark over the sea for nine days and nights, drifted to Parnassus, and there, when the rain ceased, he disembarked and sacrificed to Zeus Phyxius. Zeus sent Hermes to him and allowed him to choose what he would, and he chose to create men. At the bidding of Zeus, he took up stones and threw them over his head; and the stones which Deucalion threw became men, and the stones which Pyrrha threw became women. Hence the people were called laoi (from laas, stone). Deucalion had children by Pyrrha: first Hellen, whose father some say was Zeus; and second Amphictyon, who reigned over Attica after Cranaus; and third a daughter, Protogeneia.”

Bibliotheca 1.7.2

The narrative extends through Deucalion’s son Hellen, who fathers Dorus, Xuthus, and Aeolus, eponymous ancestors of the Greek tribes (Dorians, Ionians, Aeolians). This establishes a lineage that connects the repopulation to the origins of Greek ethnic groups, continuing the story into the heroic age.

Pindar, Olympian Ode 9 (c. 466 BC)

Pindar briefly references Deucalion and Pyrrha in the context of the founding of Opus, a city in Locris. He describes them as surviving the flood and creating a new race from stones, connecting their act to the origins of the Opuntian people.

“When the dark cloud of the flood covered the earth, Deucalion and Pyrrha, leaving their ark, built their home on the heights of Parnassus. Without a bedmate, they brought forth a stone-born race, and the stones gave a name to the people.”

Olympian Ode 9, lines 41–46

Pindar links the stone-born race to the founding of Opus through their descendant Opous, suggesting the repopulation leads to the establishment of specific Greek communities. This extends the narrative into regional histories, though it is less detailed than Apollodorus.

Hesiod, Catalogue of Women (Fragmentary, c. 700 BC)

Hesiod’s fragmentary Catalogue of Women (Fragment 2–5, preserved in later sources like the Scholia) mentions Deucalion and Pyrrha as ancestors of the Greek tribes through their son Hellen. While the flood and stone-throwing are not detailed in surviving fragments, the text continues the narrative by tracing their descendants, who shape the heroic age.

“Deucalion, son of Prometheus, married Pyrrha, daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora… From them was born Hellen, the war-loving king, from whom the Hellenes are named.”

Fragment 2, translated by Glenn W. Most

The focus on Hellen and his sons (Dorus, Xuthus, Aeolus) extends the repopulation into the genealogical structure of Greek tribes, similar to Apollodorus. This connects the flood survivors to the heroic narratives of later Greek myths, such as the Trojan War.

Plato’s Atlantis

Plato introduces Atlantis in Timaeus (21e–25d) and Critias (108e–121c), founded by Poseidon. Initially virtuous, Atlantis becomes corrupt, driven by greed and imperial ambition.

Zeus, observing their moral decline, decides to punish them, leading to the island’s destruction, sinking it into the sea.

“But afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes and floods; and in a single day and night of misfortune all your warlike men in a body sank into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like manner disappeared in the depths of the sea. For which reason the sea in those parts is impassable and impenetrable, because there is a shoal of mud in the way; and this was caused by the subsidence of the island… Zeus, the god of gods, who rules according to law, and is able to see into such things, perceiving that an honourable race was in a woeful plight, and wanting to inflict punishment on them, that they might be chastened and improve, collected all the gods into their most holy habitation… and addressed them as follows…”

121a–c, translated by Benjamin Jowett

Note: The text cuts off, leaving Zeus’s speech undetailed, but his intent to punish is clear.

Fitting Atlantis into Ovid’s Four Ages

To integrate Atlantis into Ovid’s narrative, we can position its rise and fall within the Iron Age, where human corruption peaks, prompting divine intervention.

Golden Age (Titan Rule under Saturn/Cronus)

• Ovid’s Description: Ruled by Saturn, a time of peace and abundance (Metamorphoses 1.89–112).
• Verse: “This was the Golden Age that, without coercion, without laws, spontaneously nurtured the good and the true.”
• Atlantis Connection: Atlantis does not fit here, as Plato describes it as a later, advanced civilization with organized society, unlike the lawless, effortless Golden Age. The Titans (e.g., Cronus, Rhea) dominate this era, with no mention of Poseidon’s Atlantis.

Silver Age (Olympian Rule under Jupiter/Zeus)

• Ovid’s Description: Jupiter overthrows Saturn, introduces seasons, and requires labor (Metamorphoses 1.113–124).
• Verse: “When Saturn was banished to gloomy Tartarus, and Jupiter ruled the world, then came the people of the age of silver.”
• Atlantis Connection: Atlantis could be seen as emerging in this era, as Plato describes its founding by Poseidon, an Olympian (Critias 113c–e). Poseidon divides the island among his mortal descendants, establishing a structured society with agriculture and governance, matching the Silver Age’s labor and order. However, Atlantis’s full development likely occurs later, as its imperial ambition aligns more with Iron Age corruption.

Bronze Age (Warlike but Not Vicious)

• Ovid’s Description: Marked by warlike tendencies but not full depravity (Metamorphoses 1.125–127).
• Verse: “Third came the people of the bronze age, with fiercer natures, readier to indulge in savage warfare, but not yet vicious.”
• Atlantis Connection: Atlantis, described by Plato as a naval power with military prowess (Critias 119a–b), could fit here as a society growing in ambition and martial strength. Its early virtue under Poseidon’s divine lineage resembles the Bronze Age’s restrained aggression. However, Plato’s emphasis on Atlantis’s later corruption suggests a stronger fit in the Iron Age.

Iron Age (Corruption and Divine Punishment)

Ovid’s Description: Dominated by greed, crime, and impiety, ended by Jupiter’s flood, sparing Deucalion and Pyrrha (Metamorphoses 1.128–312).

Verse: “The harsh iron age was last. Immediately every kind of wickedness erupted… Piety was dead, and virgin Astraea, last of all the immortals to depart, herself abandoned the blood-drenched earth” (1.128–150).

Verse (Flood): “He chose a different punishment: to drown mankind under the waves, sending rain from every quarter of the sky” (1.260–261).

Atlantis fits best here, as its moral decline marked by greed, hubris, and aggression against other lands (Critias 120d–121b). Zeus’s decision to destroy Atlantis mirrors Jupiter’s flood in Ovid, both targeting human wickedness.

In Critias 121a–c, Zeus convenes the gods to punish Atlantis, similar to Jupiter’s council in Metamorphoses 1.163–176: “To prevent the world being given over to the monsters, all the gods of heaven nodded their assent to the destruction of the mortal race.”

Atlantis could be a specific civilization within the Iron Age, destroyed by Zeus as part of or parallel to the broader flood that spares Deucalion and Pyrrha. The catastrophic flood align with the Iron Age’s end, suggesting Atlantis as a localized example of divine judgment.

Repopulation (Deucalion and Pyrrha)

Plato does not connect Atlantis’s destruction to repopulation, but the survival of Deucalion and Pyrrha could represent a broader renewal post-catastrophe. In Greek sources like Apollodorus’s Bibliotheca (1.7.2), Deucalion’s descendants (e.g., Hellen) found Greek tribes, potentially including post-Atlantis societies. Atlantis’s sinking leaves no survivors in Plato’s account, so it does not directly contribute to repopulation but could be part of the same global reset.

Other Relations in the Narrative

1. Poseidon’s Role:
   • In Plato’s Critias (113c–115b), Poseidon founds Atlantis, granting it to his mortal descendants. This ties Atlantis to the Olympian gods, as Poseidon’s involvement parallels Jupiter’s governance in Ovid’s Silver and later ages.
   • Connection: In Metamorphoses 1.275–292, Neptune (Poseidon) aids Jupiter’s flood, suggesting his role in both creating and destroying maritime civilizations like Atlantis, linking him to the Iron Age’s end.
2. Themis and Divine Order:
   • In Ovid, Themis guides Deucalion and Pyrrha’s repopulation (Metamorphoses 1.381–384). In Plato’s Critias (121b), Zeus upholds divine law against Atlantis’s hubris, reflecting a similar role as a guardian of order.
   • Connection: Both narratives emphasize Olympian gods enforcing moral boundaries, with Themis and Zeus ensuring humanity’s renewal or punishment.
3. Hesiod’s Influence:
   • Hesiod’s Works and Days (lines 106–201) describes a Bronze Age race destroyed for wickedness, similar to Atlantis’s fate. While Hesiod does not mention Atlantis, his flood myth in Catalogue of Women (Fragment 2–5) connects Deucalion to Greek origins, paralleling Plato’s destruction of a corrupt society.
   • Connection: Atlantis’s fall could be a specific instance of the broader Iron Age collapse in Ovid, influenced by Hesiod’s cyclical view of decline.
4. Prometheus and Deucalion:
   • Deucalion, son of Prometheus, survives the flood in Ovid and Apollodorus. Plato’s Atlantis lacks a direct Prometheus link, but his role as humanity’s benefactor (Theogony 507–616) could imply he aids survivors like Deucalion, connecting the myths through human resilience.

Proposed Narrative Integration

Atlantis fits most naturally as a civilization within Ovid’s Iron Age, flourishing under Poseidon’s patronage but succumbing to the greed and impiety described in Metamorphoses 1.128–150. Zeus’s punishment of Atlantis (Critias 121a–c) aligns with Jupiter’s flood to end the Iron Age (Metamorphoses 1.244–312), possibly as a localized event within a global deluge. Deucalion and Pyrrha, spared for their piety, represent the broader renewal, while Atlantis’s sinking serves as a cautionary tale of hubris, consistent with Zeus’s role as enforcer of divine justice. The Olympian-Titan framework remains intact, with Atlantis emerging under Olympian rule (post-Titanomachy) and falling under Zeus’s judgment.

Supporting Verses

• Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.128–150 (Iron Age Corruption): “The harsh iron age was last. Immediately every kind of wickedness erupted… Piety was dead, and virgin Astraea… abandoned the blood-drenched earth.”
  • Parallels Atlantis’s moral decline in Critias 120d–121b.
• Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.244–261 (Zeus’s Flood): “Now the gods had spoken, and all assented to the destruction of the mortal race… He chose a different punishment: to drown mankind under the waves.”
  • Mirrors Zeus’s destruction of Atlantis via floods and earthquakes (Critias 121a).
• Plato, Critias 121a–c (Zeus’s Judgment): “Zeus… perceiving that an honourable race was in a woeful plight, and wanting to inflict punishment on them… collected all the gods… and addressed them.”
  • Aligns with Jupiter’s council in Metamorphoses 1.163–176.

Conclusion

Plato’s Atlantis can be integrated into Ovid’s Iron Age as a civilization that rises under Poseidon’s Olympian influence and falls due to Zeus’s punishment for its corruption, paralleling the flood that ends the age. Zeus (Jupiter) connects both narratives as the divine judge, while Poseidon and Themis link Atlantis and the repopulation to the Olympian framework. Hesiod’s myths provide additional context, with Deucalion’s survival echoing broader Greek flood traditions. This integration preserves Ovid’s narrative while incorporating Plato’s allegory as a specific instance of Iron Age decline and divine retribution.

Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica

One translation of the excerpt from Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica 3.60.1-3 (Loeb Classical Library edition, trans. C. H. Oldfather, 1935):

“After the death of Hyperion, the myth relates, the kingdom was divided among the sons of Uranus, the most renowned of whom were Atlas and Cronus.

Of these sons Atlas received as his part the regions on the coast of the ocean, and he not only gave the name of Atlantians to his peoples but likewise called the greatest mountain in the land Atlas.

They also say that he perfected the science of astrology and was the first to publish to mankind the doctrine of the sphere; and it was for this reason that the idea was held that the entire heavens were supported upon the shoulders of Atlas, the myth darkly hinting in this way at his discovery and description of the sphere.

There were born to him a number of sons, one of whom was distinguished above the others for his piety, justice to his subjects, and love of mankind, his name being Hesperus.

This king, having once climbed to the peak of Mount Atlas, was suddenly snatched away by mighty winds while he was making his observations of the stars, and never was seen again; and because of the virtuous life he had lived and their pity for his sad fate the multitudes accorded to him immortal honours and called the brightest of the stars of heaven after him.”

A second translation from the same passage (trans. G. Booth, 1700 edition):

“After the death of Uranus, Atlas, the first-born, got the regions near the shores of the Ocean, to rule. After his own name, the people of these places were named Atlanteans, and the greatest mountain in the world, located in this area, Atlas. They say that Atlas was the first who discovered Astrology, and the doctrine of the Globe; and hence it is reported that he bore the heavens on his shoulders, the fable darkly signifying his invention and description of the Globe. He had several sons, but Hesperus was the most famous for his piety, justice, and love to men. This Hesperus, going once to the top of Mount Atlas, to observe the stars, was suddenly carried away by tempestuous winds, and never seen more. Therefore, the people, both in consideration of his virtue, and to commiserate his misfortune, gave him divine honours, and called the brightest of the stars after his name.”

Final conclussion

1. Golden Age
   • Ruled by Saturn (Cronus) leader of the Titans (Rhea, Oceanus, Hyperion)
   • Idyllic era of peace, abundance, and no laws
   • Before
     • Uranus(the father) was overthrowned by Cronus
     • After the death of Uranus (or Hyperion), Atlas, the first-born, got the regions near the shores of the Ocean
       • Atlas had several sons, but Hesperus was the most famous
       • Hesperus was the most famous for his piety, justice, and love to men.
       • At the top of Mount Atlas, to observe the stars, was suddenly carried away by tempestuous winds.
2. Silver Age
   • Began when Jupiter (Zeus) became king after the Titanomachy; a ten-year war with Olympians (Poseidon, Hades, Hera, Athena) defeating and imprisoning Titans in Tartarus
     • The Hundred-Handers, Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes joined
     • Hurled three hundred rocks in swift succession
     • Overshadowed the Titans with their missiles
   • Saturn was banished to gloomy Tartarus (as far beneath the earth as heaven is above earth)
   • Jupiter shortened spring’s first duration
   • Seasons introduced; requiring work and agriculture
   • The Olympians then established their rule, governing the cosmos and humanity
3. Bronze Age
   • Warlike but not fully corrupt
   • The third race: warlike, made from ash trees, with bronze tools and homes, but no iron
   • More savage in their characters and more prone to horrible arms, though not wicked
4. Iron Age
   • Corruption, greed, and crime dominate
   • The harsh iron age was last
   • Every kind of wickedness erupted
   • Ended by Jupiter’s (Zeus) intervention with a flood, sparing Deucalion and Pyrrha
   • Repopulation
     • Deucalion and Pyrrha are the sole human survivors of the flood, repopulate the earth
     • They create a new race by throwing stones, which become humans

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Pietas and Astraea

Pietas, translated as Piety in the quote from Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Book 1, line 149), represents a core Roman virtue personified as a goddess. It embodies dutiful conduct, loyalty, and respect toward the gods, family, state, and ancestors, often linked to moral adherence and sacrifice. In Roman culture, Pietas appeared on coins and in literature, such as Virgil’s Aeneid, where the hero Aeneas exemplifies it through his devotion to duty. A temple to Pietas stood in Rome from 181 BC, and the goddess was depicted as a woman performing offerings. In Ovid’s narrative, her “death” symbolizes the total loss of moral values in the Iron Age.

Astraea, described as the virgin in the quote (Book 1, line 150), is the goddess of justice, innocence, and purity, equivalent to the Greek Dike. Daughter of Astraeus and Eos (or sometimes Zeus and Themis), she dwelt among humans during the Golden Age but fled Earth due to increasing wickedness, becoming the constellation Virgo, often associated with the Scales of Justice (Libra). In Ovid, she is the last immortal to depart during the Iron Age, marking humanity’s irreversible decline. Other sources, like Hesiod and Aratus, place her exit in the Bronze or fifth age, but prophecies in Virgil’s Eclogue 4 foresee her return with a new Golden Age.

King Lycaon

King Lycaon was the mythical king of Arcadia in Greek and Roman mythology, son of Pelasgus and founder of the city of Lycosura. He is portrayed as impious and savage, testing divine omniscience by attempting to deceive and harm Jupiter (Zeus) during a visit. His actions, involving human sacrifice and cannibalism, exemplify the moral corruption of the Iron Age, prompting Jupiter to destroy humanity with a flood.

‘Rumour in ambush, or not, of this wickedness, reached my hearing. Mightily, but hoping it false, I descended from Olympus’s heights, and travelled the earth, a god in human form. It would take too long to tell what wickedness I found everywhere. Those rumours were even milder than the truth. I had crossed Maenala, those mountains bristling with wild beasts’ lairs, Cyllene, and the pinewoods of cold Lycaeus. Then, as the last shadows gave way to night, I entered the inhospitable house of the Arcadian king. I gave signs that a god had come, and the people began to worship me. At first Lycaon ridiculed their piety, then exclaimed “I will prove by a straightforward test, whether he is a god or a mortal. The truth will not be in doubt.” He planned to destroy me in the depths of sleep, unexpectedly, by night. That is the test of truth he chooses. Not content with that he takes a Molossian hostage sent by the Epirote people, opens his throat with a knife, and cooks part of the flesh, still living, in boiling water, roasting the rest over the fire. No sooner was this placed on the table than I brought the roof down on the household gods, with my avenging flames, those gods worthy of such a master. He himself ran in terror, and reaching the silent fields howled aloud, frustrated that he could not speak. Foaming at the mouth, and greedy as ever for killing, he turned against sheep, still delighting in blood. His clothes became bristling hair, his arms became legs. He was a wolf, but kept some vestige of his former shape. There were the same grey hairs, the same violent face, the same glittering eyes, the same savage image. One house has fallen, but others deserve to also. Wherever the earth extends the avenger’s wrath rules. You would call it a conspiracy of sin. Let them all pay the penalty they deserve, and quickly. That is my intent.’

Bk I:209-243 Lycaon is turned into a wolf